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The Cognitive Dissonance Theory
The Cognitive Dissonance Theory, proposed by psychologist Leon Festinger in 1957, is a social psychological theory that explores the discomfort individuals experience when their beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors are inconsistent with one another. According to this theory, individuals are motivated to reduce this cognitive dissonance by changing their beliefs, attitudes, or behaviors to restore consistency.
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The Social Exchange Theory
The Social Exchange Theory, developed by sociologist George Homans in 1958, is a social psychological theory that posits that social behavior is the result of an exchange process, where individuals seek to maximize rewards and minimize costs in their interactions with others. According to this theory, individuals weigh the potential benefits and drawbacks of social relationships and behaviors to determine their course of action.
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The Social Comparison Theory
The Social Comparison Theory, proposed by psychologist Leon Festinger in 1954, suggests that individuals evaluate their own abilities, opinions, and emotions by comparing themselves to others. According to this theory, people engage in social comparison to gain information about themselves and to evaluate their opinions and abilities.
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The Self-perception Theory
The Self-perception Theory, introduced by psychologist Daryl Bem in 1967, posits that individuals infer their own attitudes, beliefs, and emotions by observing their own behavior and the context in which it occurs. According to this theory, people come to understand their internal states by examining their external actions, much like observers might do.
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The Equity Theory
The Equity Theory, developed by psychologist J. Stacy Adams in 1963, is a motivational theory that focuses on the fairness of social exchanges within interpersonal relationships. According to the Equity Theory, individuals strive to maintain a sense of fairness or equity in their relationships by comparing their inputs and outcomes to those of others.
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The Attribution Theory
The Attribution Theory, proposed by psychologist Fritz Heider in 1958, is a social psychological theory that seeks to explain how individuals interpret the causes of behavior, both their own and others’. Attribution theory suggests that individuals make causal attributions to understand the reasons behind events or behaviors, which in turn influences their perceptions, emotions, and behaviors.
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The Reactance Theory
The Reactance Theory, proposed by psychologist Jack Brehm in 1966, posits that individuals have a motivational state aimed at restoring or preserving their freedom when it is threatened or restricted. Reactance theory suggests that people may react negatively to perceived threats to their freedom by asserting their independence or engaging in behaviors aimed at restoring their sense of autonomy.
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The Fundamental Attribution Error
The Fundamental Attribution Error, first described by psychologist Lee Ross in 1977, is a cognitive bias that refers to the tendency for individuals to overemphasize dispositional (internal) factors and underestimate situational (external) factors when explaining the behavior of others.
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The Boomerang Effect
The Boomerang Effect, studied by psychologist W.J. McGuire in 1966, refers to the unintended consequence where an attempt to persuade someone to change their attitude or behavior results in the person adopting an opposing position or strengthening their original position.
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The False Consensus Effect
The False Consensus Effect, studied by psychologist Lee Ross et al. in 1977, is a cognitive bias that leads individuals to overestimate the extent to which others share their beliefs, attitudes, and behaviors. It occurs when people assume that their own opinions and preferences are more common or typical than they actually are.
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The Social Loafing Phenomenon
The Social Loafing Phenomenon, first identified by psychologist Max Ringelmann in 1913, refers to the tendency for individuals to exert less effort when working collectively in a group compared to when working individually.
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The Contact Hypothesis
The Contact Hypothesis, proposed by psychologists Gordon Allport and Thomas Pettigrew in 1954, is a social psychological theory that suggests that intergroup contact under favorable conditions can reduce prejudice and improve intergroup relations. According to this hypothesis, direct contact between members of different groups can lead to greater understanding, empathy, and cooperation, thereby reducing negative stereotypes and prejudice.
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The Social Facilitation Effect
The Social Facilitation Effect, first studied by psychologist Norman Triplett in 1898, refers to the phenomenon where the presence of others enhances an individual’s performance on simple or well-rehearsed tasks while impairing performance on complex or unfamiliar tasks.
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The Jigsaw Classroom
The Jigsaw Classroom, developed by psychologist Elliot Aronson in 1971, is a cooperative learning technique designed to reduce prejudice and improve intergroup relations in the classroom. The Jigsaw Classroom involves breaking students into small, diverse groups where each member is responsible for learning specific material and then teaching it to their groupmates, fostering collaboration and interdependence.
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The Bystander Effect
The Bystander Effect, first demonstrated and popularized by psychologists John Darley and Bibb Latané in 1964, is a social phenomenon where individuals are less likely to intervene in emergency situations when others are present.
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The Framing Effect
The Framing Effect, identified by psychologists Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman in 1981, is a cognitive bias that demonstrates how the presentation of information can influence decision-making and judgments.
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The Stroop Effect
The Stroop Effect, discovered by psychologist John Ridley Stroop in 1935, is a phenomenon that demonstrates the interference in reaction time when the brain processes conflicting information.
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The Pygmalion Effect
The Pygmalion Effect, also known as the Rosenthal-Jacobson effect, refers to the phenomenon where higher expectations lead to an increase in performance.
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The Marshmallow Test
The Marshmallow Test, conducted by psychologist Walter Mischel and his colleagues in the late 1960s and early 1970s, was a pioneering study in self-control and delayed gratification.
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The Rosenhan Experiment
The Rosenhan Experiment, conducted by psychologist David Rosenhan and published in 1973, was a seminal study that exposed the flaws in psychiatric diagnosis and institutional practices.
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The Harlow Monkey Experiment
The Harlow Monkey Experiment, conducted by psychologist Harry Harlow in 1958, was a groundbreaking study that investigated the importance of maternal care and social relationships in primate development.
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The Bandura Bobo Doll Experiment
The Bandura Bobo Doll Experiment, conducted by psychologist Albert Bandura and his colleagues in the 1960s, was a seminal study that investigated the role of observational learning and social modeling in aggressive behavior.
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The Clark Doll Test
The Clark Doll Test, conducted by psychologists Kenneth and Mamie Clark in the 1940s, was a groundbreaking study that examined the psychological effects of racial segregation on African American children.
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The Jane Elliott Blue Eyes/Brown Eyes Experiment
The Jane Elliott Blue Eyes/Brown Eyes Experiment, conducted by educator and activist Jane Elliott in 1968, is a powerful demonstration of the effects of discrimination and prejudice on individuals’ behavior and attitudes.
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The Robbers Cave Experiment
The Robbers Cave Experiment, conducted by psychologist Muzafer Sherif and his colleagues in 1954, is a classic study in social psychology that explored intergroup conflict and cooperation.
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The Stanford Prison Experiment
The Stanford Prison Experiment, conducted by psychologist Philip Zimbardo in 1971, is one of the most notorious and controversial studies in the history of psychology.
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The Asch Conformity Experiments
The Asch conformity experiments were a series of psychological experiments conducted by Solomon Asch in the 1950s to study the influence of group pressure on individual behavior and decision-making.
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The Milgram Obedience Experiments
The Milgram obedience experiments, conducted by psychologist Stanley Milgram in 1961, were a series of controversial experiments that investigated the willingness of participants to obey authority figures, even when it involved potentially harmful actions.
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The Hawthorne Effect
The Hawthorne effect refers to the phenomenon where individuals modify or improve their behavior simply because they are being observed, regardless of any specific intervention or treatment.
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The Social Identity Theory
The Social Identity Theory, proposed by psychologist Henri Tajfel in 1979, is a social psychological theory that explores how individuals define themselves based on their membership in social groups and how this social identity influences their attitudes, behaviors, and interactions with others.
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The Turing Test: Assessing Machine Intelligence
The Turing Test, proposed by Alan Turing in 1950, stands as one of the most iconic benchmarks for evaluating machine intelligence and human-computer interaction.